An AP Human Geography Unit 6 Review (2024)

Produced in collaboration with CHatGPT

This post opens with a listing of 100 words, terms, and phrases either expressly mentioned in or that logically flow from the AP Human Geography Unit 6 CED Key Concepts, with each term defined by ChatGPT.

The post then provides thirty Unit 6 Multiple Choice Questions, with the answers included.

The post closes out with a listing of the APUSH CED’s AP Human Geography Unit 6 CED Key Concepts.

If you notice any glaring errors or omissions (or take issue with anything written) and wish to give me a heads-up, I can be reached at ppaccone@smusd.us.

Urban

Relating to a city or town, characterized by high population density, infrastructure, and economic activity.

Urban Renewal

A process of revitalizing urban areas that have fallen into disrepair, often involving demolition and redevelopment of buildings and infrastructure.

Urban Decay

A process of decline in the physical, social, and economic conditions of an urban area.

Urban Sprawl

A pattern of unplanned and low-density development that spreads out from an urban center into surrounding rural areas.

Urban Heat Island

A phenomenon in which urban areas are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to the heat absorbed and retained by urban infrastructure and lack of vegetation.

• Tokyo, Japan: As the world’s largest city, Tokyo experiences significant urban heat island effects. Temperatures in the city are often several degrees Celsius higher than surrounding rural areas, particularly during heat waves.
• New York City, United States: The extensive infrastructure and high population density of New York City contribute to its urban heat island effect. During heat waves, temperatures in the city can be up to 7 degrees Fahrenheit higher than surrounding rural areas.
• Beijing, China: With a population of over 21 million people, Beijing is one of the world’s largest cities and experiences significant urban heat island effects. The city’s extensive transportation network and large number of buildings and other structures contribute to its high temperatures.
• Singapore: Despite its relatively small size, Singapore experiences significant urban heat island effects due to its high population density and extensive urban development. The city has implemented a variety of strategies to mitigate the impact of urban heat, including the use of green roofs and other forms of urban greenery.
• Los Angeles, United States: As one of the largest and most densely populated cities in the United States, Los Angeles experiences significant urban heat island effects. The city’s hot and dry climate, combined with its high population and extensive urban infrastructure, contribute to its high temperatures.

Urban Planning

The process of designing and managing the physical layout and development of urban areas, including land use, infrastructure, and public spaces.

Urban Form

The physical layout and design of urban areas, including building height, density, and orientation, as well as the distribution of land uses and open spaces.

Urban Agriculture

The practice of growing food and raising livestock in urban areas, often using techniques such as rooftop gardens and hydroponics.

Urban Hierarchy

A system of ranking urban areas based on their population size and economic importance.

Urbanization

The process of increasing the proportion of a population living in urban areas.

Urban Service Area

The geographical area in which a city or urban area provides public services such as transportation, water, and sanitation.

Urban Sustainability

The ability of urban areas to meet the needs of current and future residents while maintaining social, economic, and environmental health and resilience.

Urban Mobility

The movement of people and goods within and between urban areas, often involving transportation systems such as cars, buses, and trains.

Origin of Urbanization

The origin of urbanization can be traced back to the earliest human settlements, which emerged more than 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period. These settlements, located in areas such as the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East and the Yellow River valley in China, were characterized by the domestication of plants and animals, the development of agriculture, and the creation of permanent housing and social structures. Over time, as human societies grew more complex and diversified, urban centers began to emerge as hubs of economic, political, and cultural activity. Some of the earliest known urban centers include Uruk in Mesopotamia, Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley, and Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica. The growth of urbanization was fueled by a variety of factors, including technological innovation, trade and commerce, and the rise of centralized political systems. Urban centers provided opportunities for specialization of labor, social organization, and cultural exchange, as well as increased security and protection from external threats. Today, urbanization continues to be a major force shaping human societies and the global landscape. The United Nations estimates that more than half of the world’s population now lives in urban areas, with that number expected to rise to nearly two-thirds by 2050. The origins of urbanization thus provide an important historical context for understanding the complex social, economic, and environmental challenges that face cities and urban regions today.

New Urbanism

A planning and design movement that advocates for the creation of walkable, mixed-use communities that are compact, connected, and socially diverse.

Sustainable City

A city that is designed and managed to promote long-term economic, social, and environmental sustainability, often characterized by features such as green infrastructure, renewable energy, and compact, mixed-use development.

Sustainable Urbanism

A planning and design approach that seeks to create urban environments that are socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable, often emphasizing compact, walkable communities, green infrastructure, and public transportation.

Exurbs

Areas beyond the suburbs that are characterized by low-density development and relatively long commuting distances, often associated with rural or semi-rural landscapes. Austin, Texas: Known for its vibrant music scene, beautiful parks, and booming technology industry, Austin has seen tremendous growth in recent years. The city has become a hub for young professionals, entrepreneurs, and artists seeking affordable living and job opportunities. Here are some of the more famous

• Nashville, Tennessee: With a thriving music and entertainment scene, Nashville has become a popular destination for tourists and new residents alike. The city is also home to a growing healthcare industry, as well as several universities and research centers.
• Raleigh, North Carolina: As the capital of North Carolina, Raleigh is a hub of government, education, and technology. The city has seen significant growth in recent years due to its affordable housing, diverse population, and job opportunities in fields such as healthcare, finance, and engineering.
• Salt Lake City, Utah: Known for its stunning natural beauty and outdoor recreation opportunities, Salt Lake City has also become a hub for business and innovation. The city has a growing technology industry, as well as a thriving arts and culture scene.
• Boise, Idaho: Nestled in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, Boise has become a popular destination for people seeking a high quality of life, affordable housing, and access to outdoor recreation. The city is also home to a growing technology industry and several universities and research centers.

Boomburbs

Mid-sized urban areas that are rapidly growing and developing, often due to factors such as immigration, job growth, and affordable housing. here are five examples:

• Irvine, California: Located in Orange County, Irvine is a master-planned city that has grown from a population of 10,000 in 1970 to over 280,000 in 2021. It is known for its high quality of life, excellent schools, and thriving technology industry
• The Woodlands, Texas: Located near Houston, The Woodlands is a master-planned community that has grown from a population of 1,000 in 1974 to over 110,000 in 2021. It is known for its beautiful parks and natural areas, as well as its vibrant arts and culture scene.
• Gilbert, Arizona: Located near Phoenix, Gilbert has grown from a population of 5,700 in 1980 to over 255,000 in 2021. It is known for its strong economy, excellent schools, and family-friendly community.
• Frisco, Texas: Located near Dallas, Frisco has grown from a population of 6,100 in 1990 to over 200,000 in 2021. It is known for its high quality of life, excellent schools, and thriving sports and entertainment industry.
• Murrieta, California: Located in Riverside County, Murrieta has grown from a population of 24,000 in 2000 to over 120,000 in 2021. It is known for its scenic natural areas, family-friendly community, and growing economy.

Suburbanization

The process of outward expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural and agricultural land, often resulting in low-density, automobile-dependent development.

Concentric Zone Model

The Concentric Zone Model, also known as the Burgess Model, is a theoretical model of urban structure developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess in the early 20th century. The model divides urban areas into concentric rings, with each ring representing a different level of socioeconomic status and distance from the city center.

According to the model, the innermost ring is the Central Business District (CBD), which is the commercial and economic hub of the city. This is typically where the highest concentration of businesses, government institutions, and public services can be found.

The second ring is known as the Transitional Zone, which is characterized by a mix of residential and commercial land uses, as well as a diverse population. This zone is often associated with social problems such as poverty, crime, and deteriorating housing.

The third ring is the Working-Class Zone, which is predominantly residential and inhabited by low- to moderate-income households. This zone is often associated with industrial areas and is characterized by modest housing and limited access to services and amenities.

The fourth ring is the Residential Zone, which is typically inhabited by middle-class households and is characterized by more spacious housing, better access to services and amenities, and a lower crime rate.

The outermost ring is the Commuter Zone, which is comprised of suburbs and exurbs where many residents commute to the CBD for work. This zone is characterized by higher-income households, larger homes, and a greater emphasis on private transportation.

The Concentric Zone Model was significant in the history of urban sociology because it helped to establish the idea that urban areas are not hom*ogenous, but rather are composed of distinct regions with their own characteristics and challenges. The model has also been influential in urban planning and policy-making, as it has informed efforts to address social and economic disparities in cities. However, it has also been criticized for oversimplifying complex urban processes and ignoring the diversity and complexity of cities.

Some cities that are often cited as examples of the concentric zone model include:

1. Chicago, USA — Burgess actually conducted much of his research on urban development in Chicago, and the city’s growth has often been used as an example of the concentric zone model in action.
2. Detroit, USA — Like many American cities, Detroit experienced significant growth and change in the early 20th century, and the concentric zone model has been used to explain this development
3. Mumbai, India — The concentric zone model has also been used to describe the growth of Mumbai, with the central business district at the center and residential areas expanding outwards.
4. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil — Rio de Janeiro’s favelas, or informal settlements, have been described as existing on the periphery of the city’s concentric zones, with the city’s wealthy areas at the center.
5. Paris, France — Paris has been described as having a series of concentric circles, with the historic city center surrounded by a ring of boulevards, followed by residential areas and finally suburbs.

Decentralization

The process of distributing economic, political, and social power and activity away from a central authority or location, often associated with the growth of suburbs and the decline of traditional urban centers.

Megacities

10 million or more people. Currently over 30 megacities in the world, with the majority located in developing countries. Here are three examples:

• Cairo, Egypt
• New York City, United States
• Moscow, Russia
• Beijing, China
• Osaka, Japan

Metacities

Two times the size of megacities. Metacities are urban areas with populations exceeding 20 million people. The concept of metacities was first proposed by the futurist and author John Kasarda, who argued that these mega-cities would become the centers of global economic and political power in the 21st century. Metacities are often characterized by high levels of economic activity, cultural diversity, and innovation, as well as significant challenges related to infrastructure, environmental sustainability, and social inequality. Some examples of metacities include

• Tokyo, Japan
• Delhi, India
• Shanghai, China
• Sao Paulo, Brazil
• Mumbai, India

Primate City

The largest and most dominant city in a country, often with disproportionately large economic, political, and cultural influence compared to other cities.

Edge City

A suburban area characterized by clusters of office buildings, shopping centers, and entertainment complexes, often located near major highways or transportation hubs.

Edgeless City

An urban area that lacks a clear boundary between the urban core and surrounding suburbs, often due to patterns of suburban sprawl.

Rank Size Rule

The Rank Size Rule is a theoretical model in urban geography that describes the relationship between the population sizes of cities within a country or region. According to the Rank Size Rule, the population of a city is inversely proportional to its rank in the hierarchy of cities within that country or region.

Specifically, if the largest city in a country has a population of x, the second largest city will have a population of approximately x/2, the third largest city will have a population of approximately x/3, and so on. This pattern of decreasing city size continues until the smallest cities in the hierarchy are reached, which may have a population of only a few thousand people.

The Rank Size Rule is based on the assumption that economic and social opportunities are distributed unequally across a country or region, with the largest city or cities having the greatest concentration of resources and opportunities. This concentration of resources and opportunities attracts people to the largest city, which in turn reinforces its dominance and leads to a pattern of decreasing population size in smaller cities.

While the Rank Size Rule is not always observed in practice, it has been found to hold true for many countries and regions around the world, including the United States, Canada, and several European countries. The Rule is useful for understanding the distribution of economic and social opportunities within a country or region, as well as for predicting the growth and development of cities over time.

Gentrification

A process of urban renewal and reinvestment in which historically working-class or low-income neighborhoods are transformed into higher-income, upscale communities through the rehabilitation of housing and other infrastructure.

Greenbelt

A ring of open space and natural or agricultural land surrounding an urban area, designed to prevent urban sprawl and protect natural resources.

Infill

The development of vacant or underutilized land within an existing urban area, often in the form of new housing or commercial development.

Land Use Patterns

The spatial arrangement of different types of land uses in an urban area, including residential, commercial, industrial, and open space areas. There are several famous land-use patterns that have been identified by urban geographers and planners over time. Here are some examples:

1. Concentric Zone Model: This model was developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess in the early 20th century and describes a city as a series of concentric zones, with the central business district (CBD) at the center and a series of residential and industrial zones radiating outwards.
2. Sector Model: Developed by Homer Hoyt in the 1930s, this model describes a city as divided into a series of wedges or sectors, with each sector containing similar land uses, such as residential or industrial.
3. Multiple Nuclei Model: This model was developed by Harris and Ullman in the 1940s and suggests that cities have multiple centers of activity or “nuclei,” each with its own distinct land-use pattern.
4. Greenbelt: This is a land-use pattern that is designed to limit urban sprawl by creating a buffer zone of undeveloped land around a city or urban area. The purpose is to preserve open space, promote agricultural uses, and prevent the spread of development into surrounding rural areas.
5. Smart Growth: This is an approach to urban planning that emphasizes the need to create more sustainable, livable, and economically viable cities by promoting compact, mixed-use development, public transportation, and environmental protection.
6. New Urbanism: This is a planning and design movement that emphasizes traditional neighborhood design, walkability, and mixed-use development. It seeks to create more livable and sustainable communities that are more connected to the natural environment and the surrounding landscape.
7. Transit-Oriented Development: This is an approach to urban planning that emphasizes the need to locate housing, retail, and other development in close proximity to public transportation, such as light rail or bus systems.

These land-use patterns have all had significant impacts on the development of cities and the way that urban space is organized and used. They reflect different values and priorities, as well as different social, economic, and environmental conditions.

Model

A model of urban structure developed by geographers Harris and Ullman, which suggests that urban areas can have multiple centers of economic activity and growth, rather than a single central business district.

Redlining

Redlining is the practice of denying or limiting financial services, such as loans or insurance, to people based on their race or the racial composition of the area where they live. The term originated from the practice of drawing red lines on maps to indicate neighborhoods that were considered too risky for investment. Redlining was widespread in the United States during the mid-20th century, particularly in urban areas, and contributed to the concentration of poverty and racial segregation. It was made illegal with the passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968, but its effects continue to be felt in many communities today, as it led to disinvestment, deteriorating housing conditions, and limited economic opportunities for minority communities.

Restrictive Covenants

Legally binding agreements that prohibit or restrict certain uses of property, often used to enforce racial segregation or other forms of discrimination in housing and real estate.

Sector Model

The Sector Model is a theoretical model of urban land use and structure developed by urban geographer Homer Hoyt in the 1930s. The model suggests that cities develop in a series of sectors or wedges, with each sector characterized by distinct land uses and levels of socioeconomic status.

In the Sector Model, the city is divided into several sectors radiating outward from the central business district (CBD). The model proposes that different types of land use and socioeconomic groups tend to cluster together in distinct sectors, creating a series of pie-shaped wedges.

For example, the model suggests that high-income residential areas tend to be located in one or more wedges extending outward from the CBD, while industrial areas are often located in a wedge opposite to the high-income residential area, creating a “high rent” and “low rent” section of the city. This creates a city structure similar to a pie chart, with each sector representing a different part of the pie.

According to the Sector Model, cities grow and expand outward in a predictable pattern, with new sectors developing at the urban fringe as the city grows. The model also suggests that transportation infrastructure, such as highways and public transit systems, can reinforce the sectoral pattern of land use and influence the location of different land uses.

While the Sector Model has been criticized for oversimplifying complex urban processes and ignoring the diversity and heterogeneity of cities, it remains a useful tool for understanding the spatial distribution of different land uses and socioeconomic groups within a city.

Segregation

The physical and social separation of different racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic groups in an urban area, often resulting from discriminatory practices or historical patterns of development.

Smart Growth

A planning and development approach that emphasizes compact, mixed-use development, efficient transportation, and the preservation of open space and natural resources, in order to promote sustainable, livable communities. Smart growth often involves collaboration between different levels of government, community groups, and private developers.

The Concentric Zone Model

Also known as the Burgess Model, was developed by urban sociologist Ernest Burgess in the 1920s. The model proposes that cities develop in concentric rings or zones, with the central business district (CBD) at the center and residential areas, industrial areas, and other land uses arranged in concentric rings around it. According to Burgess, different types of land use and socio-economic groups tend to occupy different zones, with higher-income groups located in the outer rings and lower-income groups located closer to the CBD.

The Sector Model

The Sector Model is a theoretical model of urban land use and structure developed by urban geographer Homer Hoyt in the 1930s. The model suggests that cities develop in a series of sectors or wedges, with each sector characterized by distinct land uses and levels of socioeconomic status.

In the Sector Model, the city is divided into several sectors radiating outward from the central business district (CBD). The model proposes that different types of land use and socioeconomic groups tend to cluster together in distinct sectors, creating a series of pie-shaped wedges.

For example, the model suggests that high-income residential areas tend to be located in one or more wedges extending outward from the CBD, while industrial areas are often located in a wedge opposite to the high-income residential area, creating a “high rent” and “low rent” section of the city. This creates a city structure similar to a pie chart, with each sector representing a different part of the pie.

According to the Sector Model, cities grow and expand outward in a predictable pattern, with new sectors developing at the urban fringe as the city grows. The model also suggests that transportation infrastructure, such as highways and public transit systems, can reinforce the sectoral pattern of land use and influence the location of different land uses.

While the Sector Model has been criticized for oversimplifying complex urban processes and ignoring the diversity and heterogeneity of cities, it remains a useful tool for understanding the spatial distribution of different land uses and socioeconomic groups within a city.

The Multiple Nuclei Model

The Multiple Nuclei Model is a theoretical model of urban structure developed by geographers Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in 1945. The model proposes that urban areas can have multiple centers of economic activity and growth, rather than a single central business district.

According to the Multiple Nuclei Model, different types of land use and socio-economic groups tend to cluster around these multiple nuclei, creating a more complex and diverse urban landscape. The nuclei can include not only central business districts, but also specialized centers for manufacturing, transportation, education, and other activities.

In contrast to the Concentric Zone Model, which suggests that cities develop in concentric rings around a single central business district, the Multiple Nuclei Model emphasizes the importance of local factors and historical contingencies in shaping the structure of urban areas. The model also suggests that cities can have more than one center of economic activity, and that the location and interaction of these centers can have a significant impact on the overall structure and function of the city.

The Multiple Nuclei Model has been influential in urban planning and policy-making, as it has encouraged planners and policymakers to take a more nuanced and contextual approach to understanding urban structure and development. The model has also been used to explain the spatial distribution of different land uses and socio-economic groups within cities, and to predict the impact of changes in urban form and function on the urban landscape.

The Burgess Model

Also known as the Concentric Zone Model, is another model of urban structure proposed by Ernest Burgess in the 1920s. The model suggests that cities develop in a series of concentric rings, with the central business district (CBD) at the center and residential areas, industrial areas, and other land uses arranged in concentric rings around it. The Burgess Model emphasizes the importance of transportation in shaping urban form, with higher-income groups tending to locate in areas with better transportation access.

World City (aka Global City)

A “world city” is a term used to describe a city that has a significant global impact and is connected to the global economy and political systems through flows of trade, capital, people, and information. World cities are considered to be key centers of global economic activity and play a major role in shaping the global economy.

World cities are often considered to be the largest and most economically advanced cities in the world, such as London, New York, Paris, Tokyo, and Hong Kong.

In summary, world cities are cities that have a significant global impact and are connected to the global economy and political systems through their role as centers of finance, business, and commerce, and as centers of political, cultural, and social

White Flight

The phenomenon in which white residents, particularly those of higher socio-economic status, leave urban areas in large numbers for suburban or exurban areas, often in response to changing racial demographics or perceived increases in crime.

Brownfield

A site that has been previously developed and may be contaminated with hazardous substances or pollutants, often requiring cleanup or remediation before redevelopment.

Greenfield

A site that has not been previously developed or is largely undeveloped, often used for new construction or expansion of urban areas.

Food Deserts

Areas with limited access to affordable, nutritious food, often due to a lack of grocery stores or other food retail outlets.

Mixed-use development:

The development of buildings or neighborhoods that combine a variety of land uses, such as residential, commercial, and recreational uses, in order to create more livable and sustainable communities.

Residential segregation:

The physical and social separation of different racial, ethnic, or socio-economic groups in housing and neighborhoods, often resulting from discriminatory practices or historical patterns of development.

Industrialization:

The process of developing large-scale manufacturing industries and the associated infrastructure, often leading to urbanization and economic growth.

Deindustrialization:

The decline of manufacturing industries and associated economic activities in urban areas, often resulting in unemployment, social dislocation, and physical decay.

Post-industrial economy:

An economy characterized by a shift away from traditional manufacturing industries toward service-based industries such as technology, finance, and entertainment, often associated with the growth of urban areas and the rise of the knowledge-based economy.

Mixed Land Use

Mixed land use refers to the practice of integrating different types of land uses within the same area, such as combining residential, commercial, and/or industrial activities. This approach can reduce the need for driving and decrease transportation-related emissions, as people can live, work, and play in the same general vicinity. It can also increase social interaction and create more vibrant and diverse communities.

Mixed land use can be achieved through various means, including:

1. Zoning regulations: Local governments can adopt zoning regulations that encourage mixed land use. For example, they can allow for a mix of commercial and residential activities in the same area or incentivize developers to build mixed-use projects.
2. Transit-oriented development: Transit-oriented development (TOD) refers to the practice of locating dense, mixed-use developments near public transit stations. This can encourage people to use public transportation and reduce the need for cars.
3. Adaptive reuse: Adaptive reuse involves repurposing existing buildings for new uses. For example, an old factory building can be converted into a mixed-use development that includes residential, commercial, and community spaces.

Mixed land use can have numerous benefits, including:

1. Reduced driving: Mixed land use can reduce the need for driving by creating more walkable and bikeable communities.
2. Increased social interaction: Mixed land use can increase social interaction by creating vibrant and diverse communities that allow people to live, work, and play in the same area.
3. More efficient land use: Mixed land use can make more efficient use of land by integrating different types of land uses and reducing the need for single-use zoning.
4. Increased sustainability: Mixed land use can reduce energy use and emissions by decreasing the need for driving and increasing the use of public transit, walking, and biking.

In summary, mixed land use is a key strategy for promoting sustainable design and land use practices. By integrating different types of land uses within the same area, mixed land use can reduce the need for driving, increase social interaction, make more efficient use of land, and increase sustainability.

Walkability

Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include walkability as a key component to create more sustainable and livable communities.

Walkability refers to the extent to which a community is designed to promote walking and pedestrian activity. This can include the design of sidewalks, crosswalks, street lighting, and other elements that make walking safe, comfortable, and convenient. Walkability can also be influenced by the location of shops, services, and amenities within the community.

Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices can promote walkability in several ways, including:

1. Pedestrian-friendly street design: Sustainable zoning practices can encourage the creation of pedestrian-friendly street designs that prioritize the needs of walkers over those of drivers. This can include wider sidewalks, well-marked crosswalks, and other features that make walking safe and comfortable.
2. Mixed-use development: Sustainable zoning practices can also encourage mixed-use development, which locates a mix of residential, commercial, and community uses in close proximity. This can create walkable communities by providing easy access to shops, services, and amenities.
3. Transit-oriented development: Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a sustainable design practice that locates dense, mixed-use developments near public transportation. TOD can increase walkability by creating vibrant and diverse communities that are well-connected to transit options.
4. Complete streets policies: Many sustainable zoning practices now include complete streets policies, which require streets to be designed to accommodate all users, including pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit users.

The benefits of walkability in sustainable design and zoning practices include:

1. Health and well-being: Walkability can promote physical activity and improve overall health and well-being by making it easier for people to walk and be active.
2. Reduced transportation emissions: By promoting walking and biking, walkable communities can reduce transportation emissions and contribute to a more sustainable future.
3. Economic development: Walkability can also support local economic development by creating vibrant and attractive communities that are desirable places to live, work, and visit.
4. Social equity: Walkability can promote social equity by creating safe and accessible pedestrian routes that connect all members of the community to important services and amenities.

In summary, sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include walkability as a key component to promote more sustainable and livable communities. By encouraging pedestrian-friendly street designs, mixed-use development, transit-oriented development, and complete streets policies, sustainable design can create communities that are healthier, more equitable, and more sustainable for everyone.

Transportation-Oriented Development

Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include transportation-oriented development (TOD) as a strategy to promote more sustainable and efficient transportation options, reduce automobile use, and encourage development near public transit.

TOD is a type of development that is located near public transportation hubs, such as bus and train stations. It typically includes a mix of land uses, such as residential, commercial, and office space, and is designed to be easily accessible by foot, bike, or public transit. TOD can also include features such as pedestrian-friendly streets, bike lanes, and public spaces that encourage walking and biking.

Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices can promote TOD in several ways, including:

1. Zoning regulations: Local governments can adopt zoning regulations that encourage TOD, such as allowing higher density development near transit hubs or providing incentives for developers to build mixed-use projects near public transit.
2. Transit investments: Governments can also invest in public transit infrastructure to support TOD, such as building new transit stations or improving existing ones.
3. Public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can help finance TOD projects by bringing together public and private sector resources.

The benefits of TOD in sustainable design and zoning practices include:

1. Reduced automobile use: TOD can reduce automobile use by providing convenient access to public transportation, which can reduce the need for car ownership.
2. Increased transportation options: TOD can provide residents with more transportation options, such as walking, biking, and public transit, which can improve access to jobs, services, and amenities.
3. More efficient land use: TOD can make more efficient use of land by locating development near public transit hubs, which can reduce sprawl and preserve open space.
4. Improved environmental sustainability: TOD can reduce transportation-related emissions by encouraging the use of public transit, walking, and biking, and by reducing automobile use.

In summary, sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include transportation-oriented development (TOD) as a strategy to promote more sustainable and efficient transportation options, reduce automobile use, and encourage development near public transit. By promoting TOD through zoning regulations, transit investments, and public-private partnerships, sustainable design can create communities that are healthier, more equitable, and more sustainable for everyone.

Smart-Growth Policies

Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include smart-growth policies as a strategy to promote more sustainable and efficient land use. Smart-growth policies aim to create more compact, walkable, and mixed-use communities that prioritize infill development and reduce sprawl.

Smart-growth policies typically include a mix of land-use regulations, incentives, and investments that encourage development in areas that are already built up, such as urban and suburban centers, and discourage development in rural and natural areas. Some examples of smart-growth policies include:

1. Growth boundaries: Growth boundaries are policies that establish limits on the geographic extent of development. This can help to prevent sprawl and protect open space.
2. Infill development: Infill development is the process of redeveloping underutilized or vacant sites within existing communities. Smart-growth policies can incentivize infill development by reducing development fees and streamlining the permitting process.
3. Mixed-use development: Mixed-use development is the practice of combining residential, commercial, and other land uses within the same development. Smart-growth policies can encourage mixed-use development by allowing greater density and reducing parking requirements.
4. Complete streets: Complete streets policies are guidelines that promote the design of streets that are safe and accessible for all users, including pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit users. Complete streets can help to reduce automobile dependency and promote more sustainable transportation options.

The benefits of smart-growth policies in sustainable design and zoning practices include:

1. Reduced sprawl: Smart-growth policies can help to reduce sprawl by directing development to already built-up areas.
2. Improved transportation options: By promoting compact, walkable, and mixed-use development, smart-growth policies can improve access to sustainable transportation options such as walking, biking, and public transit.
3. More efficient land use: Smart-growth policies can make more efficient use of land by promoting infill development and reducing sprawl.
4. Preserving open space: By limiting development in rural and natural areas, smart-growth policies can help to preserve open space and protect the environment.

In summary, sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices often include smart-growth policies as a strategy to promote more sustainable and efficient land use. By promoting growth boundaries, infill development, mixed-use development, and complete streets, smart-growth policies can create more compact, walkable, and sustainable communities that are healthier, more equitable, and more sustainable for everyone.

New Urbanism

New Urbanism is an urban planning and design movement that seeks to create walkable, mixed-use communities that prioritize human-scale design and public spaces. It emphasizes traditional architectural styles and designs, with buildings that are oriented towards streets and public spaces rather than parking lots. The movement also promotes sustainable transportation options, such as walking, biking, and public transit, and seeks to reduce dependence on automobiles. New Urbanism has been influential in shaping the design of new communities and the redevelopment of existing urban areas, with a focus on creating more livable, sustainable, and vibrant places for people to live, work, and play.

Greenbelts

Greenbelts are areas of land that are protected from development and designated for natural, agricultural, or recreational uses. They typically surround urban or suburban areas and serve to prevent urban sprawl, protect open space and natural habitats, and provide opportunities for outdoor recreation. Greenbelts can also help to improve air and water quality, mitigate the impacts of climate change, and support local agriculture. They are often created through land-use policies, such as zoning regulations or conservation easem*nts, and can be managed by a variety of entities, including government agencies, non-profit organizations, and private landowners. Greenbelts are a popular tool for promoting sustainable development and preserving the natural and cultural heritage of communities.

Slow-Growth Cities

Slow-Growth Cities are urban areas that prioritize sustainable, equitable, and people-centered development over rapid population and economic growth. They typically seek to balance development with the protection of open space, preservation of historic and cultural resources, and promotion of sustainable transportation and infrastructure. Slow-Growth Cities may implement policies such as growth boundaries, density limits, and environmental regulations to manage development, while also investing in affordable housing, public transportation, and other community resources. The aim is to create livable, sustainable, and equitable communities that prioritize the well-being of residents and the environment over short-term economic gains. Slow-Growth Cities are gaining popularity in response to concerns about climate change, social equity, and quality of life, and are seen as a viable alternative to traditional models of growth-oriented urban development

De Facto Segregation

A type of segregation that occurs as a result of societal and cultural factors rather than explicit legal policies. It can be the result of residential and economic patterns that lead to the concentration of certain racial or ethnic groups in particular areas of a city or region. De facto segregation can occur even in the absence of explicit discriminatory policies, such as housing or zoning laws, but it can be reinforced and perpetuated by social, economic, and political factors.

For example, de facto segregation can be seen in the concentration of African American and Hispanic residents in urban neighborhoods with limited economic opportunities, poor housing conditions, and inadequate access to quality education, healthcare, and other services. This can lead to a lack of social and economic mobility for these groups and perpetuate racial and ethnic inequalities.

While de facto segregation is not necessarily illegal, it can have significant negative impacts on communities and individuals, including reduced access to resources and opportunities, limited social mobility, and increased social and economic disparities. As a result, efforts to promote integration, inclusion, and equity often seek to address de facto segregation through policies and programs that promote diversity, reduce concentration of poverty, and create opportunities for disadvantaged communities.

Blockbusting

This term refers to the practice of real estate agents encouraging the sale of homes to African American families in predominantly white neighborhoods, with the goal of causing panic-selling by white residents and driving down property values. Lockbusting is a form of housing discrimination and is illegal under the Fair Housing Act.

Disamenity Zones or Zones of Abandonment

These are areas within cities or regions that are characterized by a lack of basic infrastructure and public services such as access to clean water, healthcare, and education. They are often the result of economic inequality, political instability, or natural disasters, and can be associated with high levels of poverty and crime.

Squatter Settlements

These are informal settlements that arise when people build homes on land that they do not own, often without permission from authorities. These settlements are typically found in urban areas and are often associated with poverty and a lack of affordable housing. Squatter settlements can be precarious and lack basic services such as sanitation and access to clean water.

Ecological Footprint

This term refers to the impact of human activities on the natural environment, expressed in terms of the amount of land and resources required to sustain those activities. It is calculated by measuring the amount of land and water needed to produce the goods and services that we consume, as well as the amount of land required to absorb the waste and pollution generated by those activities. The ecological footprint is an important concept in environmental science and sustainability, and is used to inform policy decisions and encourage sustainable practices.

First Urban Revolution

The First Urban Revolution refers to the transformation of society from agricultural to urban-based society, characterized by the rise of cities, increased trade, and the growth of civilization. This revolution occurred between 4000 and 2500 BCE in the ancient Near East and led to the development of complex societies, specialization of labor, and the creation of the first cities, such as Ur and Uruk. The First Urban Revolution is considered a major turning point in human history, marking the transition from prehistory to recorded history.

The Ancient Near East refers to the region in western Asia that encompasses modern-day Iraq, Iran, Syria, and parts of Turkey (especially Mesopotamia)

Principles that are Useful for Explaining the Distribution and Size of Cities

1. Rank-Size Rule: The rank-size rule is an empirical observation that states that the size of a city or settlement is inversely proportional to its rank in a hierarchy of settlements. In other words, the largest settlement in a region is typically half the size of the second largest settlement, which is half the size of the third largest settlement, and so on. This pattern holds true for both urban and rural settlements, and is considered a basic principle of urban geography.
2. Primate City: The primate city is the largest and most dominant city in a country, serving as the center of political, economic, and cultural activity for the entire nation. A primate city is typically much larger than any other city in the country and plays a disproportionate role in shaping the nation’s economy, politics, and culture. Examples of primate cities include London in the United Kingdom, Tokyo in Japan, and Mexico City in Mexico.
3. Gravity Model: The gravity model is a theoretical model used in geography and transportation studies to predict the flows of goods, services, and people between two locations based on their size and distance from each other. The model assumes that the strength of the relationship between two locations is proportional to their size and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
4. Christaller’s Central Place Theory: Central place theory is a model developed by German geographer Walter Christaller to explain the spatial pattern of settlements in a region. The theory posits that settlements are arranged in a hierarchical pattern, with larger cities serving as central places that provide goods and services to smaller settlements in the surrounding region. Christaller’s central place theory is based on the idea that people are willing to travel a certain distance to access goods and services, and that this distance is determined by the nature of the goods and services being sought. The theory has been used to explain the distribution of settlements in many regions, including rural areas and urban areas.

Models and Theories that are Useful for Explaining Internal Structures of Cities

1. Burgess Concentric-Zone Model: The Burgess Concentric-Zone Model, also known as the Chicago School model, is a theoretical model of urban land use that was developed by American sociologist Ernest Burgess in the 1920s. The model proposes that cities are divided into concentric zones, with the central business district at the center and lower-income residential areas on the periphery. The model suggests that as people move away from the central business district, they tend to occupy different zones based on their income and social status, creating a concentric pattern of urban land use.
2. Hoyt Sector Model: The Hoyt Sector Model is an extension of the Burgess Concentric-Zone Model, proposed by American geographer Homer Hoyt in the 1930s. The model adds the idea that the concentric zones are divided into sectors, with different land uses (such as residential, commercial, or industrial) occupying different sectors. The model suggests that the location of different land uses is influenced by transportation access and the availability of land.
3. Harris and Ullman Multiplenuclei Model: The Harris and Ullman Multiplenuclei Model is a theoretical model of urban land use that was developed by American geographers Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in the 1940s. The model proposes that cities are not characterized by a single central business district, but rather by multiple centers of activity (nuclei) that are connected by transportation networks. The model suggests that the location of different land uses is influenced by transportation access and the availability of land, and that cities are not simply divided into concentric zones, but are complex and dynamic systems.
4. Galactic City Model: The Galactic City Model is a theoretical model of urban land use that was developed by French geographer Georges Bataille in the 1950s. The model proposes that cities are not characterized by a single center or multiple centers of activity, but rather by a dispersed pattern of urban land use. The model suggests that the location of different land uses is influenced by the availability of land, transportation access, and other factors, and that cities are not simply divided into concentric zones or sectors, but are complex and dynamic systems.
5. Bid-Rent Theory: Bid-rent theory is a theoretical model of urban land use that was developed by American economist Richard Muth in the 1960s. The theory proposes that the value of land is influenced by its proximity to the central business district and to transportation access, and that the highest-valued land is found near the central business district and along transportation corridors. The theory suggests that the location of different land uses is influenced by the availability of land, transportation access, and other factors, and that the value of land can be modeled using a bid-rent curve.
6. Urban Models Drawn from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa: There are many different urban models that have been developed to describe the patterns of urbanization and urban land use in specific regions, including Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. These models take into account the unique cultural, economic, and political factors that shape the urbanization process in each region, and may include elements of the Burgess Concentric-Zone Model, the Hoyt Sector Model, the Harris and Ullman Multiplenuclei Model, and other models, as well as local variations.

The Location and Quality of a City’s Infrastructure Directly Affect its Spatial Patterns of Economic and Social Development.

The location and quality of a city’s infrastructure, including transportation systems, utilities, public facilities, and other basic services, directly affect its spatial patterns of economic and social development in several ways:

1. Accessibility: The quality and location of transportation infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and public transit can impact the accessibility of different parts of the city, which in turn can affect the location of economic and social activities. Areas that are easily accessible are more likely to attract businesses, residents, and visitors.
2. Land use: The quality and location of infrastructure can also influence land use patterns within the city. For example, areas with good transportation links may become commercial or industrial centers, while areas with limited transportation options may remain residential or develop into areas with lower land values.
3. Investment: The quality of infrastructure can influence the level of investment in an area. Areas with well-maintained infrastructure and good public services are often more attractive to investors, and are therefore more likely to attract new businesses and developments.
4. Social equity: The quality and location of infrastructure can also impact social equity, particularly in terms of access to basic services such as water, electricity, and public transportation. Areas with poor infrastructure may be disadvantaged, particularly if they are home to low-income or marginalized communities.
5. Environmental sustainability: The location and quality of infrastructure can also affect the sustainability of the city, particularly with regards to transportation and energy use. Areas with good public transit options and energy-efficient buildings are often more sustainable and can help reduce the environmental impact of the city.

In summary, the location and quality of a city’s infrastructure play a crucial role in shaping its spatial patterns of economic and social development. The availability of good transportation options, public facilities, and utilities can influence the accessibility, land use, investment, social equity, and sustainability of different areas within the city.City vs Town

A city is a large human settlement, typically characterized by a dense concentration of buildings and people, a diversity of economic activities, and a relatively high level of social and cultural organization. Cities often serve as centers of trade, politics, transportation, and education, and are distinguished from rural areas by their higher population density and diversity of functions. The criteria for defining a settlement as a city can vary between countries, but typically include factors such as population size, economic output, and administrative status. The first cities were created in the ancient world, around 4000–3500 BCE, in the region of the ancient Near East.

city and a town are two different forms of human settlement, but there are different criteria used to distinguish between them in various countries and regions. In general, a city is a larger and more urban settlement, while a town is smaller and more rural. However, the exact definitions of a city and a town can vary greatly depending on the context.

Some common criteria used to distinguish between cities and towns include population size, density, economic and cultural importance, administrative status, and the presence of urban features such as public transportation, high-rise buildings, and cultural institutions. In some countries, cities are designated as such by the government, while in others, the distinction is made informally.

In some cases, the distinction between a city and a town can be more a matter of perception than of fact, as smaller cities may have some rural characteristics, while larger towns may have some urban characteristics. In the end, the distinction between a city and a town depends on the criteria used to define each, as well as the particular context and cultural norms of the region where they are located.

Globalization

Globalization refers to the integration and interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures across the world through increased trade, communication, transportation, and immigration. It is a complex and multifaceted process that has been driven by advancements in technology, communication, and transportation, as well as changes in political, economic, and social systems. Globalization has led to the growth of international trade and investment, the expansion of multinational corporations, and the flow of goods, services, information, and people across national borders. It has also brought about cultural exchange and the spread of ideas, products, and technologies. However, globalization has also been criticized for exacerbating inequalities, contributing to environmental degradation, and challenging traditional cultural identities. Despite these challenges, globalization remains a major force shaping the world today and continues to shape the economic, political, and cultural landscapes of countries and regions around the world.

The period of globalization is generally considered to have started in the late 20th century, with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the increasing liberalization of trade and investment in the 1990s. The development of new technologies, especially in the areas of communication and transportation, has also played a significant role in facilitating globalization by reducing the cost and time of communication and travel between countries. The increased interconnectedness of economies, societies, and cultures around the world has been driven by a combination of technological advancements, political changes, and economic reforms. The process of globalization has accelerated since the late 20th century, and continues to shape the world today. It is a complex and ongoing process that has brought about both benefits and challenges, and continues to be a topic of debate and discussion.

The Second Urban Revolution

This term refers to the period of rapid urbanization and industrialization that took place in many parts of the world after World War II. It began in the mid-20th century, around the 1950s and 1960s, and was characterized by the rapid growth of cities, the expansion of suburbs, and the transformation of economies from agrarian to industrial and post-industrial. The Second Urban Revolution was driven by a number of factors, including technological advancements, increased international trade and investment, and the migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of work. This period of rapid urbanization and industrialization had a profound impact on the social, economic, and political structures of many countries, and has shaped the world we live in today. The Second Urban Revolution marked a shift away from the traditional industrial cities of the 19th and early 20th centuries, towards more sprawling and suburbanized cities that are characterized by low-density development, automobile dependence, and decentralized economic activity.

Urban vs. Rural

Urban areas are densely populated and characterized by a high degree of economic and social activity, while rural areas are more sparsely populated and are often characterized by agriculture, forestry, or other natural resource-based industries.

Centralized vs. Decentralized

Centralized systems are characterized by a single decision-making center or authority, while decentralized systems distribute power and decision-making across multiple centers or entities.

High-Density vs. Low-Density

High-density areas are characterized by a large number of people or buildings per unit of land, while low-density areas have fewer people or buildings per unit of land.

Public vs. Private Space

Public spaces are owned and maintained by the government or community and are open to all members of the public, while private spaces are owned by individuals or organizations and are restricted to certain groups or individuals.

Economic inequality vs. Equity

Economic inequality refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, income, and resources among individuals or groups, while equity refers to the fair distribution of these resources.

Gentrification vs. Displacement

Gentrification is the process of revitalizing urban neighborhoods through investment, often leading to an increase in property values and the displacement of long-term residents. Displacement is the involuntary relocation of individuals or groups due to gentrification, urban renewal, or other factors.

Urban renewal vs. Urban Decay

Urban renewal is the process of revitalizing urban areas through public or private investment, while urban decay refers to the decline of urban areas due to economic or social factors.

Environmental sustainability vs. Urban Sprawl

Environmental sustainability refers to the responsible use and management of natural resources to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, while urban sprawl is the unplanned, low-density development that spreads into rural areas, often resulting in environmental degradation.

Zoning Laws vs. Mixed-use Development

Zoning laws are regulations that control how land can be used in a particular area, while mixed-use development allows for a mix of residential, commercial, and/or industrial uses within a single building or development.

Industrial vs. Post-industrial Economy

An industrial economy is characterized by the production of goods using manual labor and machinery, while a post-industrial economy is characterized by a shift towards service-based industries and a decreased reliance on manufacturing.

World city vs. megacity

The key difference between world cities and megacities is that world cities are defined by their global significance, while megacities are defined by their population size. While many world cities are also megacities, not all megacities are world cities. For example, Delhi and Mumbai are two of the largest megacities in the world, but they may not have the same level of global significance as world cities like London or New York.

Transit-oriented development vs. Automobile-Dependent Development

Transit-oriented development is a type of urban development that prioritizes the creation of compact, mixed-use neighborhoods around public transportation hubs, with the goal of reducing reliance on personal automobiles. Automobile-dependent development, on the other hand, is characterized by low-density, sprawling development that is designed primarily for automobile use and can be detrimental to the environment and public health.

Infill development vs. Greenfield Development

Infill development is the process of building on vacant or underutilized land within established urban areas, while greenfield development is the process of building on previously undeveloped land outside of established urban areas. Infill development is often seen as more sustainable and efficient, as it can reduce sprawl and encourage the use of existing infrastructure.

Brownfield sites vs. Greenfield Sites

Brownfield sites are abandoned or underutilized industrial or commercial sites that are contaminated or perceived to be contaminated, while greenfield sites are previously undeveloped land that has not been developed or used for industrial or commercial purposes. Brownfield sites can be challenging to redevelop due to their contamination, while greenfield sites may present fewer environmental challenges.

Food deserts vs. Food Security

Food deserts are areas where residents have limited access to healthy and affordable food, often due to a lack of grocery stores or other food retailers. Food security, on the other hand, refers to the availability and accessibility of a sufficient and nutritious food supply for all members of a community.

Urban planning vs. Market Forces

Urban planning is the process of designing and managing the physical and social development of cities and urban areas, often with a focus on public welfare and sustainability. Market forces, on the other hand, refer to the economic and social forces that shape development in response to market demand.

Concentric Zone Model vs. Sector Model

The concentric zone model is a theory of urban growth that describes the expansion of cities outward from a central core in a series of concentric circles, while the sector model describes urban growth as occurring in sectors along major transportation routes or other features.

Multiple Nuclei Model vs. Burgess Model

The multiple nuclei model describes urban growth as occurring around multiple, distinct centers of activity or “nuclei,” while the Burgess model describes urban growth as occurring in concentric zones outward from a central core.

Socio-Economic Segregation vs. Mixed-Use Development:

Socio-economic segregation refers to the spatial separation of people based on their income or social status, often resulting in unequal access to resources and opportunities. Mixed-use development, on the other hand, refers to the integration of multiple land uses (residential, commercial, etc.) within a single development or neighborhood, with the goal of creating more diverse and sustainable communities.

Central Business District vs. Suburban Sprawl

The central business district is the commercial and economic hub of a city, typically located in the downtown area, while suburban sprawl refers to low-density, sprawling development that occurs outside of established urban areas.

Smart growth vs. Unplanned Growth:

Smart growth is an approach to urban planning that promotes compact, walkable, and transit-oriented development, with a focus on sustainability, social equity, and economic vitality. Unplanned growth, on the other hand, refers to development that occurs without a coherent plan, often resulting in sprawl, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation.

White flight vs. Racial integration:

White flight refers to the phenomenon of white residents leaving urban areas in large numbers, often in response to racial integration or other social changes. Racial integration, on the other hand, refers to the process of creating racially diverse and inclusive communities.

Post-industrial economy vs. Manufacturing-Based Economy:

Post-industrial economy refers to an economy in which the service sector is dominant, and the emphasis is on innovation, knowledge, and technology. A manufacturing-based economy, on the other hand, is characterized by the production of goods using manual labor and machinery.

Residential segregation vs. Integration:

Residential segregation refers to the separation of people based on their race, ethnicity, income, or other factors, often resulting in unequal access to resources and opportunities. Integration, on the other hand, refers to the creation of diverse and inclusive communities.

Greenbelt vs. Urban Sprawl

A greenbelt is a protected area of land surrounding an urban area that is intended to limit development and preserve natural areas. Urban sprawl, on the other hand, is the unplanned, low-density development that spreads into rural areas, often resulting in environmental degradation.

Brownfield redevelopment vs. Greenfield Development

Brownfield redevelopment is the process of revitalizing abandoned or underutilized industrial or commercial sites that may be contaminated, while greenfield development refers to the development of previously undeveloped land. Brownfield redevelopment can help to reduce environmental contamination and preserve natural areas.

Food deserts vs. Food Swamps:

Food deserts are areas where residents have limited access to healthy and affordable food, often due to a lack of grocery stores or other food retailers. Food swamps, on the other hand, are areas where unhealthy, high-calorie food is readily available and heavily marketed.

Mixed-income housing vs. Gated Communities

Mixed-income housing is a type of housing development that includes a range of housing types and prices, with the goal of creating diverse and inclusive communities. Gated communities, on the other hand, are often exclusive and isolated developments that are separated from the surrounding community.

Urban agriculture vs. Industrial Agriculture

Urban agriculture refers to the practice of growing food and raising animals in urban areas, often using sustainable and innovative techniques. Industrial agriculture, on the other hand, is a system of large-scale, mechanized farming that relies heavily on chemical inputs and often has negative environmental impacts.

New Urbanism vs. Urban Sprawl

New Urbanism is an urban design movement that seeks to create walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods with a range of housing types, transit options, and public spaces. The goal is to create communities that are more sustainable, socially connected, and aesthetically pleasing. Urban sprawl, on the other hand, is the unplanned, low-density development that is characterized by the spread of housing, commercial, and industrial activities into rural areas. This type of development is often associated with automobile dependence, social isolation, and environmental degradation.

Zoning laws vs. Property Rights

Zoning laws are regulations that control how land can be used in a particular area. They specify what types of activities are allowed (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) and where they can occur. Property rights, on the other hand, are the legal rights of property owners to use, sell, and transfer their property. The tension between zoning laws and property rights arises when property owners feel that their rights are being restricted by zoning regulations that limit their ability to use their land as they see fit.

Urban Heat Islands vs. Green Infrastructure

Urban heat islands are areas within a city that are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas, often due to the abundance of heat-absorbing surfaces such as concrete and asphalt. Green infrastructure, on the other hand, is a system of interconnected green spaces, such as parks, green roofs, and street trees, that provide a range of environmental, social, and economic benefits. Green infrastructure can help to mitigate the effects of urban heat islands by providing shade and evaporative cooling.

Sustainable City vs. Unsustainable City

A sustainable city is one that is designed and managed in a way that promotes social, economic, and environmental sustainability. This can include a range of strategies such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting public transportation and walkability, using renewable energy sources, and promoting social equity. An unsustainable city, on the other hand, is characterized by high levels of pollution, poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation.

Compact City vs. Urban Sprawl

A compact city is a densely populated urban area that is designed to be walkable and bikeable, with mixed land uses and a range of housing types. This type of development is characterized by high-density, multi-story buildings, and a network of public transportation options. Compact cities are often associated with reduced car use, lower carbon emissions, and increased social interaction. Urban sprawl, as discussed above, is the unplanned, low-density development that is characterized by the spread of housing, commercial, and industrial activities into rural areas.

Second Urban Revolution vs First Industrial Revolution

They are not the same. the Second Urban Revolution is not considered the start of the First Industrial Revolution. The First Industrial Revolution began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and was characterized by the shift from manual labor to machine-based production, the development of new transportation systems, and the growth of urban centers. This revolution took place primarily in Britain and Europe, and had a profound impact on the economic, social, and political structures of these countries. The Second Urban Revolution, which took place in the mid-20th century, was a period of rapid urbanization and industrialization that was driven by technological advancements, increased international trade and investment, and the migration of people from rural areas to cities. While the First Industrial Revolution and the Second Urban Revolution were both important stages in the development of modern urban societies, they are distinct and separate periods in the history of urbanization.

Blockbusting v. Redlining

Blockbusting and redlining are both practices in real estate and urban planning that have had significant impacts on neighborhoods and urban communities. Blockbusting refers to the practice of inducing homeowners to sell their properties by suggesting that the entry of minority groups into the neighborhood will lead to a decline in property values. Blockbusting often involved scare tactics and misinformation and was used to create racial segregation and to profit from it. Redlining refers to the practice of denying or limiting financial services, such as loans or insurance, to residents of certain areas based on their racial or ethnic makeup. Redlining created areas of concentrated poverty and limited access to credit and other financial services for residents of certain neighborhoods based on their race or ethnicity. This resulted in a vicious cycle of disinvestment, decay, and decline in these areas, as well as limited opportunities for residents to improve their economic conditions and move up the socioeconomic ladder. Redlining is considered a form of systemic discrimination that has had lasting impacts on the spatial organization of American cities and the distribution of social and economic opportunities.

Squatter Settlement and a Planned Community

Squatter settlements and planned communities are two different types of urban land-use patterns. Squatter settlements are typically unplanned, informal settlements that emerge when people occupy land without legal ownership or authorization. These settlements often lack basic infrastructure such as roads, water, and sanitation systems. In contrast, planned communities are designed and developed with specific goals in mind, such as creating sustainable, mixed-use communities or providing affordable housing. Planned communities often have more advanced infrastructure and amenities, and they may have restrictions on certain activities or types of development.

Here are the 20 multiple-choice questions for the AP Human Geography Unit 6: Cities and urban land use patterns and processes, along with their correct answers appearing in bold type and marked ewith an asterisk (*):

1. According to the concentric zone model, which land use is found closest to the city center? a. Industry b. Residential * c. Commercial d. Recreational
2. The Burgess model of urban land use is based on what assumption about urban growth? a. Urban growth is linear. b. Urban growth is radial. * c. Urban growth is decentralized. d. Urban growth is unpredictable.
3. Which of the following factors contributed to the rise of suburbanization in the United States in the mid-20th century? a. The availability of public transportation b. The increase in manufacturing jobs in urban areas c. The GI Bill, which provided low-cost mortgages for veterans * d. The decline in the automobile industry
4. Which of the following is a factor that contributes to urban sprawl? a. High-density zoning laws b. Strong public transportation systems c. Low fuel prices * d. Community-based planning initiatives
5. What is the process of gentrification? a. The movement of low-income residents into urban areas b. The displacement of high-income residents by low-income residents as a neighborhood becomes more desirable. c. The expansion of urban areas into previously rural areas d. The displacement of low-income residents by higher-income residents as a neighborhood becomes more desirable. *
6. Which of the following best describes the sector model of urban development? a. Urban areas develop in a series of concentric circles, with the central business district at the center. b. Urban areas develop in a series of wedges, with high-income residential areas and business districts occupying the most desirable land. * c. Urban areas develop in a series of linear corridors, with the central business district at one end and residential areas at the other. d. Urban areas develop in a series of clusters, with similar land uses grouped together.
7. In the multiple nuclei model, urban areas are composed of multiple centers of activity that develop independently of one another. Which of the following is an example of a center of activity in this model? a. A university campus * b. A shopping mall c. A public park d. A residential neighborhood
8. What is a primate city? a. A city that has grown in a linear fashion b. A city that has a strong central business district c. A city that has multiple nuclei of activity d. A city that dominates its country’s economy and culture *
9. Which of the following is an example of an edge city? a. A high-rise residential tower in the city center b. A suburban office park * c. A historic district with preserved buildings d. A shopping mall in the city center
10. Which of the following factors contributes to the development of a primate city? a. The availability of natural resources b. The presence of a strong manufacturing industry c. The central location of the city d. The historical influence of the city *
11. What is the process of redlining? a. The practice of drawing lines around urban areas to prevent development b. The practice of excluding certain neighborhoods from access to financial services based on their racial makeup * c. The process of expanding urban areas into previously rural areas
12. Which of the following is an example of a megacity? a. Los Angeles * b. Santa Fe c. Portland d. Austin
13. Which of the following best describes the process of urbanization? a. The movement of people from urban areas to rural areas b. The movement of people from rural areas to urban areas * c. The expansion of rural areas into previously urban areas d. The decline of urban areas due to economic or political factors
14. Which of the following is an example of a greenbelt? a. A high-rise residential tower in the city center b. A suburban office park c. A park located within an urban area d. A zone of undeveloped land surrounding an urban area to limit urban sprawl *
15. What is a food desert? a. An area that lacks access to healthy and affordable food * b. An area that is sparsely populated and lacks economic opportunities c. An area that has experienced a decline in population due to economic factors d. An area that has experienced significant environmental degradation
16. What is a zoning ordinance? a. A law that prohibits certain types of land use in certain areas b. A law that requires the development of affordable housing in urban areas c. A law that requires the construction of new infrastructure to support urban growth d. A law that sets guidelines for the use and development of land in a particular area *
17. What is urban renewal? a. The process of building new infrastructure to support urban growth b. The process of revitalizing urban areas through the demolition and redevelopment of existing structures * c. The process of expanding urban areas into previously rural areas d. The process of preserving historic buildings and districts in urban areas
18. Which of the following is a benefit of mixed-use development? a. Reduced traffic congestion b. Increased sprawl c. Reduced opportunities for social interaction d. Increased walkability and access to services and amenities *
19. Which of the following is an example of an informal settlement? a. A high-rise residential tower in the city center b. A suburban office park c. A neighborhood that lacks basic services and infrastructure * d. A park located within an urban area
20. What is a central business district? a. The area in an urban area where most residential development is concentrated b. The area in an urban area where most manufacturing and industrial development is concentrated c. The area in an urban area where most commercial development is concentrated * d. The area in an urban area where most government buildings are concentrated
21. According to the concentric zone model, which land use is found closest to the city center? a. Industry b. Residential c. Commercial d. Recreational
22. The Burgess model of urban land use is based on what assumption about urban growth? a. Urban growth is linear. b. Urban growth is radial. c. Urban growth is decentralized. d. Urban growth is unpredictable
23. Which of the following best describes the sector model of urban development? a. Urban areas develop in a series of concentric circles, with the central business district at the center. b. Urban areas develop in a series of wedges, with high-income residential areas and business districts occupying the most desirable land. c. Urban areas develop in a series of linear corridors, with the central business district at one end and residential areas at the other. d. Urban areas develop in a series of clusters, with similar land uses grouped together.
24. In the multiple nuclei model, urban areas are composed of multiple centers of activity that develop independently of one another. Which of the following is an example of a center of activity in this model? a. A university campus b. A shopping mall c. A public park d. A residential neighborhood
25. Which of the following is a characteristic of the Southeast Asian Model of urban development? a. Cities developed around a central business district (CBD). b. Commercial and industrial activities were located away from the port areas. c. Traditional land-use patterns and settlement structures had little influence on urban growth. d. Port facilities played a key role in driving urban growth.
26. Which of the following best describes the galactic city model of urban development? a. Urban areas develop in a series of concentric circles, with the central business district at the center. b. Urban areas develop in a series of wedges, with high-income residential areas and business districts occupying the most desirable land. c. Urban areas develop in a series of linear corridors, with the central business district at one end and residential areas at the other. d. Urban areas are composed of multiple centers of activity that develop independently of one another, with a suburban ring surrounding the entire urban area.
27. Which of the following factors contributes to the development of a primate city? a. The availability of natural resources b. The presence of a strong manufacturing industry c. The central location of the city d. The historical influence of the city
28. What is Christaller’s Central Place Theory? a. A theory that describes the spatial distribution of cities based on the concentration of services and amenities. b. A theory that describes the distribution of agricultural land use based on the availability of resources. c. A theory that describes the distribution of manufacturing industries based on the availability of transportation and raw materials. d. A theory that describes the spatial distribution of settlements based on their functions and their interactions with each other.
29. What is an Urban Heat Island? A region of high population density and intense economic activity that dominates the surrounding area. b. A type of land use that involves the extraction of natural resources for economic gain. c. An area in which the temperature is significantly higher than in surrounding rural areas due to human activities and infrastructure. d. A form of urban growth that involves the expansion of cities into surrounding rural areas.
30. What is the Hoyt Sector Model a. A theory that describes the spatial distribution of settlements based on their functions and their interactions with each other. b. A theory that describes the spatial distribution of cities based on the concentration of services and amenities. c. A theory that describes the distribution of manufacturing industries based on the availability of transportation and raw materials. d. A theory that describes the spatial distribution of residential areas based on their proximity to transportation corridors and high-income commercial areas.